Reffering 



1. Referring to an earlier part of an essay, report etc

above	adjective,	adverb  used when  referring  to something  in an earlier part of  the
essay, report etc that you are writing, usually something that is nearby and on the same
page:
 See the above diagram.
 Students often have difficulty with verbs of motion, as the above example shows.
 This procedure is described above.
 For more information, see above.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Above can be used as an adjective, for example: the above picture, or as an adverb, for 
example: see above.

previous adjective [only before noun] a previous part of an essay, report etc comes 
before this one:
 The results of this study were discussed in  a previous section. (=one of the sections
before this one)
 As was mentioned in the previous chapter, (=the chapter immediately before this one) 
these changes occurred over a long period of time.

preceding adjective  [only before noun] the  preceding  part of  an  essay,  report etc 
comes immediately before this one:
 In the preceding pages, she describes the history of the island. 
 These meetings were mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

earlier adverb at some point before this in an essay, report etc:

 It is extremely important, therefore, to follow the general principles on project planning
that we described earlier in the chapter.
 As  was mentioned earlier, at that time most people could not expect to live beyond
the age of 65.
 As outlined earlier, an alternative theory was becoming widely accepted in the 1920s.


as has been seen/it has been seen that used when referring to something that
you have already mentioned or shown: 
 Matisse, as has been seen, was inspired by the work of Cezanne.
 It has been seen that there are a number of problems with this type of approach.

the former	adj n  [singular] a formal phrase meaning  the first of the two things or
people that you have just mentioned:
 The former method is probably more likely to produce a successful result.
 There were  two possible  ways of dealing with  the situation:  try to  negotiate with the
terrorists, or launch an immediate attack. The government chose the former.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Former can be used as an adjective, for example: the former approach, or as a noun,
for example: The corporation chose the former.

the latter adj n  [singular] a formal phrase meaning the second  of the two things or
people that you have just mentioned:
 Some people think the  killing  was deliberate.  Others say that it was an  accident.  I 
would take the latter view.
 The people are either Albanians or Serbs. The latter regard Kosovo as a sacred part of
historic Serbia. 

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Latter  can  be used as an adjective,  for example:	the  latter  view,  or as a noun, for 
example: Wilson preferred the latter.



2. Referring to a later part of an essay, report etc

below adverb used when referring to a later part of the essay, report etc that you are
writing, usually nearby on the same page:
 See below for further details.
 The reasons that lay behind this decision are discussed below.
 Below is a short account of the events that led up to the crisis.

the following adj n [singular] used when referring to the things or people that you are
going to mention:
 Consider the following example.
 It is important to remember the following points. 
 Make  sure  that the patient  has	the following: drugs, dressings, X rays, and a 
completed appointment card. 
 The following are some of the things that people said about the book.


STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
The following can be used as an adjective, for example: the following method, or as a 
noun, for example: Choose one of the following.
When it introduces a list that comes immediately after it, the following has a colon after 
it: Your report should discuss the following: initial hypothesis; the experiment; analysis of 
the results.

as follows used when introducing a list or an explanation: 

 The three elements are as follows: economy, efficiency, and effectiveness.

there follows used when giving a short description of what comes next in an essay,
report etc:
 There follows a simple example of this kind of organization of ideas and information. 

over page / overleaf adverb on the next page. Used when telling people to look at
the next page for more information about something:
 This sound is produced with the tongue behind the top teeth (see diagram over page).
 More  than  8,400 new airliners will be  sold  over the next 15  years, worth  more than 
$500 billion (see chart overleaf).

see over used when asking people to look at the next page for more information about
something:
 For more information, see over.
 Einstein was awarded the Nobel prize for his work on the Quantum Theory (see over).

as we shall see used when saying that something will be explained or become clear
later in a piece of writing: 
 As we shall see later, their views differ in several important respects.
 This idea is probably wrong, as we shall see.


3. Referring to another piece of work

see verb [transitive] used when referring to another writer's work:

 For a more extensive discussion, see Eysenck (1979).
 See Townsend (1971, pp. 1209) for an interesting analyis of this topic.

as somebody  says / notes / remarks / points out  etc used  when  you  are
quoting another writer, when you agree with what they said: 
 As Professor Richard Dawkins points out, this process is influenced by environmental 
factors.
 It is important to remember, as Alan Kay says, "the main difference between scientists 
and engineers is that engineers want to make things and scientists want to understand 
them."

cf.  used when  referring  to  something, for example a particular writer's work, that is
connected with the subject that you are writing about:
 Often a male speaker will use  a more formal style when addressing  a woman (cf.
Trudgill 1986).
 Very few linguists have produced analyses that make use of such functional categories
(but cf. Halliday, 1973).

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Cf. is the abbreviation of the Latin word confer, which means 'compare'.

op. cit.  used in  formal writing when you are referring to a  book, article etc that you
have already mentioned:
 There has been  much discussion concerning the origins of  primitive art (see also
Gombrich, op. cit., p63-94)

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Op. cit. is the abbreviation of the Latin words opere citato, which mean 'in the work that
I have quoted'.

ibid. adverb used in formal writing when you are referring to the same book, article etc 
as the one that you have just mentioned:
 Half of these countries have incomes between $1,000 and $3,000 ( ibid: p63).

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Ibid. comes from the Latin word ibidem, which means 'in the same place'.

loc. cit.  used in formal writing  when  you  are  referring to  the same  page  in a book,
article etc as the one that you have just mentioned:
 According to Dionysius  (loc.  cit.)  the  statue had disappeared,  and was supposed to
have been burned. 


STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
loc. cit. is an abbreviation of the Latin words loco citato, which mean 'in the same place
I have quoted'.

pp. the written abbreviation of pages, used when you are referring to several pages in 
another writer's book, article etc:
 See also Wadsworth 1978, pp. 54-55 
